Keywords

hunter-gatherers, environmental history, hunter-farmer relations

Objectives

The objective of this research is to construct an account of hunter-gathers living in the tropics, their exploitation of natural resources and interethnic relationships from the perspective of environmental history. This history can be broadly divided into four eras: (1) hunting and gathering; (2) hunter-gathers coexisting with agricultural peoples and becoming agriculturalists; (3) premodern and modern nation-building; (4) globalization. This project will be an experiment in constructing an environmental history of the world from the perspectives of hunter-gathers from three continents: Asia, Africa, and South America. Specific issues tracked by era will include (1) whether during the hunting and gathering period, hunter-gatherers were self-sufficient by exploiting tropical rain forest and tropical highland resources; (2) how hunter-gathers co-existed with agriculturalists; (3) hunter-gatherer response to pre-modern nation-building (the Mughal Empire and its forestry industry, the Kingdom of Congo and ivory, etc.) and colonization; (4) changes due to the impact of Chinese economic expansion and other forms of globalization on demand for agar wood and other forest products and ivory. By addressing these four issues, this research will contribute to construction of a world history from an environmental perspective as seen through the eyes of hunter-gatherers, a departure from previous world histories that have focused on urban civilizations.

Research Results

The coordinator of this research was able to understand how difficult it was to define the term “hunter-gatherers” through 10 study meetings in total. The concept of “hunter-gatherers” has frequently been used mainly in archaeology and anthropology until recently. However, it was impossible to clarify the definition of this concept, although studying this term by region enabled us to grasp the diversity of occupations and society. We also found difficulty in systematically restoring the history of “hunter-gatherers” in detail, which had lasted for more than 10,000 years in the past. This was because some regions were short of materials that could present evidence, such as written materials. However, as archaeological studies have developed recently, it has become possible to see the diversity of the “hunter-gatherers” who had lived in prehistoric times. “Is it possible to write the history centering on “hunter-gatherers” in the future?” This question cannot be clearly answered now, but this joint research has provided a great number of clues in the discussion of “the new world history.”

7.　The plan to publish the research results and future development We are planning to publish the following three books as the results of this research: First, a collection of theses will be published in Japanese by a domestic publisher (currently being prepared). This collection of theses contains the essence of the entire research, adhering to our aim of creating the environmental history of the globe centering on “hunter-gatherers.” Second, we are preparing a collection of theses written mainly by researchers who presented a report at the panel “Domiciliation of Nomads” at the International Congress of Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences held in Japan in 2014 (in English, SES, this is currently under review). This collection also contains the studies by overseas researchers other than the members of this joint research. Third, we are also preparing a collection of theses based on the panel “The relationship between hunter-gatherers and their neighbors” at the International Conference on Hunting and Gathering Societies held in the U.K. in 2013 (in English, SES, this is currently in preparation). This collection will be written and edited jointly by us and a researcher from the U.S.A.. I believe that presenting our research results in Japan and abroad through these three collections will enhance the presence of the National Museum of Ethnology in relation to this joint research.